Methods and systems for climate forecasting using artificial neural networks

ABSTRACT

Methods and systems for generating a neural network (NN)-based climate forecasting model are disclosed. The methods and systems perform steps of selecting a global climate simulation dataset from a plurality of simulation datasets each generated from a global climate simulation model; training the NN-based climate forecasting model on the selected global climate simulation dataset; and validating the NN-based climate forecasting model using observational historical climate data. Embodiments of the present invention enable accurate climate forecasting without the need to run new dynamical global climate simulations on supercomputers. Also disclosed are benefits of the new methods, and alternative embodiments of implementation.

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

If an Application Data Sheet (ADS) has been filed on the filing date ofthis application, it is incorporated by reference herein. Anyapplications claimed on the ADS for priority under 35 U.S.C. §§ 119,120, 121, or 365(c), and any and all parent, grandparent,great-grandparent, etc. applications of such applications, are alsoincorporated by reference, including any priority claims made in thoseapplications and any material incorporated by reference, to the extentsuch subject matter is not inconsistent herewith.

NOTICE OF COPYRIGHTS AND TRADEDRESS

A portion of the disclosure of this patent document contains materialwhich is subject to copyright protection. This patent document may showand/or describe matter which is or may become tradedress of the owner.The copyright and tradedress owner has no objection to the facsimilereproduction by anyone of the patent disclosure as it appears in theU.S. Patent and Trademark Office files or records, but otherwisereserves all copyright and tradedress rights whatsoever.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

Embodiments of the present invention are in the field of climateforecasting, and pertain particularly to methods and systems for climateforecasting using an artificial neural network-based forecasting model.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The statements in this section may serve as a background to helpunderstand the invention and its application and uses, but may notconstitute prior art.

Climate refers to the long-term average of weather conditions, whereweather is the fluctuating state of the atmosphere as reflected inmeteorological variables including temperature, wind speed,precipitation, and the like. Regional climate is the average weatherpattern in a region over several decades, and global climate describesthe climate of the Earth as averaged over regional differences. Weatherchanges on an hourly or daily scale, while climate change occurs overyears, decades, centuries, and millennia. Accurate climate forecastingenables the anticipation and mitigation of extreme or disruptive climateevents, and are of huge human and economic values to climate-sensitivesectors such as agriculture and energy.

Traditionally, climate forecasts have been produced usingcomputationally intensive dynamical models, or statistical models thatmake limiting assumptions such as linearity between predictors andpredictands. Dynamical models rely on fundamental physical principlesand use mathematical equations to represent physical, chemical, andbiological mechanisms that influence global climate, taking into accountof climate system components such as atmospheric circulation, landcoverage, ocean current circulation and biogeochemistry,atmosphere-ocean interactions including air-sea heat and waterexchanges, and many external forcing factors. A dynamical climate modelcan be evaluated based on its hindcast skill against past observationalhistorical data, to minimize uncertainty in forward climate forecasts.As more climate processes are incorporated into global climate models onfiner spatial grids, and as more forcing scenarios are considered forclimate change, supercomputers become essential in finding numericalapproximations to mathematical questions that are too difficult to solveexactly. The computational complexity and the cumulative uncertainty innumerical modeling over long periods of time make it difficult togenerate fast and robust long-lead forecasts with high accuracy. Hybriddynamical and statistical models, as well as ensemble modeling have alsobeen studied extensively to reduce forecast uncertainty bypost-processing and combining climate projections from differentforecasting models, yet such approaches often require even highercomputational power.

More recently, advanced machine learning algorithms developed in otherresearch fields and application areas have been suggested for climateanalysis and other Earth System Science applications. Such data-drivenapproaches may attempt to learn spatial-temporal features from existingobservational historical climate data, yet are generally constrained bythe short observational record of climate data, which often have highspatial resolutions but short temporal durations. For example, themodern global instrumental record of surface air temperatures and oceansurface temperatures stretches back only to the late 19^(th) century.

Therefore, in view of the aforementioned difficulties, there is anunsolved need to develop a low-cost, fast, and robust climateforecasting system that can project climate trends and predict climateevents with high accuracy while providing insights into complexunderlying mechanisms.

It is against this background that various embodiments of the presentinvention were developed.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Methods, systems, and apparatuses are provided for climate forecastingusing an artificial neural network-based climate forecasting modeltrained on global climate simulation data and fine-tuned onobservational historical climate data.

In one aspect, one embodiment of the present invention is a method forgenerating a neural network (NN)-based climate forecasting model for atarget climate forecast application, comprising the steps of selecting aglobal climate simulation dataset from a plurality of candidatesimulation datasets, wherein each candidate simulation dataset isgenerated from a global climate simulation model (GCM); training theNN-based climate forecasting model on the selected global climatesimulation dataset, wherein the NN-based climate forecasting modelcomprises a predictive neural network, and wherein each input andcorresponding desired output used in the training are elements of theselected global climate simulation dataset; and validating the NN-basedclimate forecasting model on a set of observational historical climatedata.

In some embodiments, the predictive neural network is a ConvolutionalRecurrent Neural Network (CRNN) having at least one Long Short-TermMemory (LSTM) layer. In some embodiments, the NN-based climateforecasting model comprises a Spherical Convolutional Neural Network(S²-CNN).

In some embodiments, the set of observational historical climate data isa first set, and the selecting of the global climate simulation datasetcomprises the steps of validating each of the plurality of candidatesimulation datasets, by comparing a sample statistic of at least oneclimate variable, between simulation data from each candidate simulationdataset and a second set of observational historical climate data,wherein the at least one climate variable is selected based on thetarget climate forecast application; and computing a forecast skillscore for each validated candidate simulation dataset.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises augmenting eachcandidate simulation dataset using at least one of climatologyaugmentation, temporal augmentation, and McKinnon augmentation.

In some embodiments, at least one of the global climate simulationmodels is selected from the group consisting of CNRM-CM5 model,MPI-ESM-LR model, GISS-E2-H Model, NorESM1-M model, HadGEM2-ES model,and GFDL-ESM2G model.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises tuning the NN-basedclimate forecasting model on reanalysis data. In some embodiments, thetuning of the NN-based climate forecasting model comprises the steps offreezing one or more layers of the NN; and training the NN-based climateforecasting model on the reanalysis data.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises forecasting at leastone target climate variable at a target lead time using the NN-basedclimate forecasting model.

In another aspect, one embodiment of the present invention is a systemfor generating a neural network (NN)-based climate forecasting model,comprising at least one processor, and a non-transitory physical storagemedium for storing program code and accessible by the processor, theprogram code when executed by the processor causes the processor toselect a global climate simulation dataset from a plurality of candidatesimulation datasets, wherein each candidate simulation dataset isgenerated from a global climate simulation model (GCM); train theNN-based climates forecasting model on the selected global climatesimulation dataset, wherein the NN-based climate forecasting modelcomprises a predicative neural network, and wherein each input andcorresponding desired output used to train the NN-based climateforecasting model are elements of the selected global climate simulationdataset; and validate the NN-based climate forecasting model using a setof observational historical climate data.

In yet another aspect, one embodiment of the present invention is anon-transitory computer-readable storage medium for generating a neuralnetwork (NN)-based climate forecasting model, the storage mediumcomprising program code stored thereon, that when executed by aprocessor causes the processor to select a global climate simulationdataset from a plurality of candidate simulation datasets, wherein eachcandidate simulation dataset is generated form a global climatesimulation model (GCM); train the NN-based climate forecasting model onthe selected global climate simulation dataset, wherein the NN-basedclimates forecasting model comprises a predictive neural network, andwherein each input and corresponding desired output used to train theNN-based climate forecasting model are elements of the selected globalclimate simulation dataset; and validate the NN-based climateforecasting model using a set of observational historical climate data.

Yet other aspects of the present invention include methods, processes,and algorithms comprising the steps described herein, and also includethe processes and modes of operation of the systems and serversdescribed herein. Other aspects and embodiments of the present inventionwill become apparent from the detailed description of the invention whenread in conjunction with the attached drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Embodiments of the present invention described herein are exemplary, andnot restrictive. Embodiments will now be described, by way of examples,with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which:

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating grid cells used by a coupledatmospheric-ocean global climate model, and physical processesconsidered within each grid cell;

FIG. 2A is an exemplary architecture diagram for an illustrative neuralnetwork (NN)-based climate forecasting system, according to someembodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 2B is an exemplary flow diagram providing a process overview ofclimate forecasting using the NN-based forecast system shown in FIG. 2A,according to some embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 3 is an exemplary schematic diagram of a computing entity forimplementing a NN-based climate forecast system, according to exemplaryembodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 4 is an exemplary schematic diagram of a management computingentity for implementing an NN-based climate forecast system, accordingto exemplary embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 5A is an exemplary Convolutional Recurrent Neural Network (CRNN)for climate forecasting, according to some embodiments of the presentinvention;

FIG. 5B is a graphical representation of an exemplary data input to theCRNN in FIG. 5A, according to some embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 5C is an exemplary Long Short-Term Memory (LSRM) cell for use inthe CRNN in FIG. 5A;

FIG. 6A is an illustrative flow diagram for training a machine learningalgorithm, according to exemplary embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 6B is an illustrative diagram comparing traditional machinelearning to transfer learning in the context of climate forecasting,according to some embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 7 is an exemplary flow diagram for a process to generate amulti-model ensemble of global climate simulation data, according tosome embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 8 is an exemplary block diagram for a data pre-processing enginethat pre-processes a multi-model ensemble of global climate simulationdata, according to some embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 9 is an exemplary flow diagram for a process to generate and traina NN-based climate forecasting model, according to some embodiments ofthe present invention;

FIG. 10 is another exemplary flow diagram for a process to generate andtrain a NN-based climate forecasting model, according to someembodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 11 is another exemplary flow diagram for a process to generate amulti-model ensemble of global climate simulation data, according tosome embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 12 is an exemplary flow diagram for a process to pre-process amulti-model ensemble of global climate simulation data, according tosome embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 13A is a graph comparing correlation measures of different forecastmethods in predicting the Nino 3.4 Index at different lead times,according to some embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 13B is a graph comparing the time series of forecast results bydifferent forecast methods in predicting the Nino 3.4 Index, accordingto some embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 14 is an illustrative diagram showing a seasonal average wind speedprediction for a selected wind farm, according to some embodiments ofthe present invention;

FIG. 15 is an illustrative diagram showing a United States map ofhydroelectric plants, and seasonal risk predictions at a selectedhydroelectric plant, according to some embodiments of the presentinvention; and

FIG. 16 is an illustrative diagram showing an analysis of powergeneration by a hydroelectric plant including seasonal variations inpower production, according to some embodiments of the presentinvention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

In the following description, for purposes of explanation, numerousspecific details are set forth in order to provide a thoroughunderstanding of the invention. It will be apparent, however, to oneskilled in the art that the invention can be practiced without thesespecific details. In other instances, structures, devices, activities,and methods are shown using schematics, use cases, and/or flow diagramsin order to avoid obscuring the invention. Although the followingdescription contains many specifics for the purposes of illustration,anyone skilled in the art will appreciate that many variations and/oralterations to suggested details are within the scope of the presentinvention. Similarly, although many of the features of the presentinvention are described in terms of each other, or in conjunction witheach other, one skilled in the art will appreciate that many of thesefeatures can be provided independently of other features. Accordingly,this description of the invention is set forth without any loss ofgenerality to, and without imposing limitations upon the invention.

CLIMATEAI is a trademark name carrying embodiments of the presentinvention, and hence, the aforementioned trademark names may beinterchangeably used in the specification and drawing to refer to theproducts/services offered by embodiments of the present invention. Theterm CLIMATEAI may be used in this specification to describe the overallclimate forecasting platform, as well as the company providing saidplatform. With reference to the figures, embodiments of the presentinvention are now described in detail.

Introduction to Climate Forecasting and Overview of the CLIMATEAI System

The climate system is the fundamental natural heat engine that propelsevery aspect of the environment and human activity. Powered byradiations from the sun and influenced by various external forcingmechanisms, it drives complex physical and biogeochemical processes tomaintain the basic conditions for the existence of life on the earth'ssurface. The global climate system has several interactive keycomponents, including the atmosphere, the hydrosphere (surface water),the cryosphere (snow and ice), the lithosphere (soil and rocks), and thebiosphere. Perturbations to and variations of the global climate system,on seasonal, annual, decadal, and millennial scales, can have profoundimpacts on the environment and human's way of life. Accurate climateforecasting enables the anticipation and mitigation of extreme ordisruptive climate events, and are of huge human and economic values toclimate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, energy, water resourcemanagement, and urban planning.

Meteorologists and climatologists attempting to predict climate trendsare limited in the amount of real observational historical data, whichcomprises actual measurement of climate variables including, but notlimited to, land temperature, sea temperature, arctic ice thickness,weather patterns, ocean current, surface open temperature, ambient airtemperature, wave height, and storm severity. Real observational data donot exist for much of the earth's history. Only in about the last onehundred years have humans had means for measuring and recording many ofthese climate variables, and weather patterns that require complexinstrumentations have not been recorded until recently. Additionally, alack of understanding of factors impacting the climate also influencesthe amount of observational data available. For example, it is onlywithin the last forty years that scientists have begun to understand theeffects humans have on the climate and started recording more detailedmeasurements of certain climate variables and associated human factors.

Climate Forecasting Based on Global Climate Models

Conventional climate forecasting systems utilize computationallyintensive dynamical general circulation models run on supercomputerswith thousands of processors and petabytes of data storage, yet the lackof real observational data and the chaotic nature of Earth's climatesystem have made it difficult to create climate models that accuratelypredict future outcomes.

A global climate model (GCM) or general circulation model relies onfundamental physical principles, such as the laws of thermodynamics andfluid dynamics, and use mathematical equations to represent the generalcirculation of the planetary atmosphere and/or ocean. It integrates andsimulates physical, chemical, and biological mechanisms that influenceglobal climate, using observational historical data as initial orboundary conditions, and in turn provides historical, present, andfuture simulations of the behavior of the climate under differentforcing scenarios. More specifically, a GCM breaks the globe into afinite number of three-dimensional boxes, and imposes complexmathematical equations in each box to represent the evolution of andinteractions among different climate system components. For example, theNavier-Stokes Equations are a set of coupled differential equations thatdescribe how the velocity, pressure, temperature, and density of amoving fluid such as atmospheric gases and ocean currents are related.An atmospheric GCM (AGCM) models atmospheric circulation andland-surface climates using imposed sea surface temperatures; an oceanicGCM (OGCM) models the ocean with fluxes from the atmosphere imposed; anatmosphere-ocean coupled GCM (AOGCM) covers the sub-models as well ascoupled interactions among the atmosphere, ocean, land surface, and seaice.

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram 100 illustrating grid cells used by anatmosphere-ocean coupled global climate model (AOGCM), and physicalprocesses considered within each grid cell (From the National Oceanic &Atmospheric Administration, Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory). Inthis AOGCM, the earth 110 is divided into 3D grids 115 according tolatitude, longitude, and height or pressure, and a pull-out image 120shows different processes that may be modeled within each grid cell tocalculate the evolution of the climate system, with interactions amongneighboring cells imposed as boundary conditions. Pull-out image 120illustrates various components that are taken into account by the AOGCM,including the atmospheric component (clouds, aerosols/chemicals, etc.),the land surface component (vegetation, snow cover, surface hydrologyetc.), the ocean component (current circulation, heat and carbontransfer, etc.), the sea ice component (solar radiation absorption,air-sea heat and water exchange), and external forcing factors such ashuman contributions in terms of gas emissions from cars and factories.

It is easy to see that higher spatial and temporal resolutions providehigher accuracy in climate modeling, but complexity of the model andamount of numerical data thus generated would grow exponentially. Forexample, with 1.25 degrees in latitude and longitude and 20 verticallevels, the total number of variables modeled would be in the millionsrange, and data generated would be petabytes in size. Such extensivesimulations are only feasible at a few climate research institutions andoperational agencies.

When applied to climate forecasting, a GCM is initialized with observedor estimated atmosphere, ocean, land, and sea ice states, and run inforward time into the future. Because of the chaotic nature of theclimate system, forecast results can be very sensitive to even smallperturbations to the initial conditions or model parameters of thesystem. Any changes in perturbations or external forcings to the system,for example in the form of solar irradiance, or human contributed carbonand aerosol emissions, would require a GCM-based forecast to be runagain, and any additional lead-time for the forecast requires at leastpolynomial increase in the total number of computations needed, whilealso increasing the amount of forecast uncertainty. Moreover,differences in GCM model design often lead to very different forecastingskills, with some models performing better than others in some specificclimate forecasting applications. Models can also perform better at somespecific time of the year than at other times of the year. Ensemblemodeling such as seasonal predictions through the North AmericanMulti-Model Ensemble (NMME) has been studied to reduce forecastuncertainty by post-processing and combining climate projections fromdifferent GCMs, yet such approaches may require even highercomputational power.

Climate Forecasting with Machine Learning

More recently, advanced machine learning algorithms developed in otherresearch fields and application areas have been suggested for climateanalysis and climate forecasting, leading to rapid expansion of researchin climate informatics. Such data-driven approaches attempt to learnspatial-temporal features from existing observational historical climatedata and/or modeled climate data, but like in ensemble modeling, areoverwhelmingly focused on using artificial intelligence inpost-processing, ranking, and weighting GCM-based climate forecastresults to reduce forecast uncertainty.

Furthermore, some machine-learning based climate forecast systems haveutilized long short-term memory neural networks or a combination ofautoregressive integrated moving average models and artificial neuralnetworks. Such forecasts are trained and validated exclusively onobservational historical data, and are thus significantly constrained bythe short observational record of climate data, which has only beenmeasured in situ or via satellites on the global scale for the pasthundred years or so.

CLIMATEAI Neural Network (NN)-Based Climate Forecasting System

Broadly, embodiments of the present invention relate to climateforecasting, and pertain particularly to methods and systems for climateforecasting using an artificial neural network (ANN) or neural network(NN)-based forecasting model, trained on global climate simulation datafrom one or more AOGCMs and fine-tuned using observational historicalclimate data including reanalysis data.

More specifically, the CLIMATEAI climate forecasting system employs adeep learning network that is capable of extracting spatial-temporalfeatures as well as functional dependencies and correlations amongdifferent GCM simulation datasets to predict future climate conditions.Typically in supervised learning, a predictor model such as a neuralnetwork is first trained using a first set of labeled training data todetermine an optimal set of internal parameters. The capability of thepredictor model is then validated on a second validation dataset andtuned accordingly. A third test dataset is then used to evaluate thepredictive or forecast skill of the model.

While existing machine learning-based statistical climate forecastingmethods both train and validate on observational historical climate dataand are thus constrained by the short observational record of climatedata, embodiments of the present invention leverage transfer learningtechniques to utilize knowledge acquired from physical dynamical GCMs,and to fully exploit the forecasting potential of both simulation andobservational data. By training on vast amounts of currently availablephysical simulation data that have already been generated by differentmetrological and climate research agencies, then validating onobservational historical data including reanalysis data, the CLIMATEAIsystem achieves forecasting skills comparable to that of operationaldynamical models while requiring only a miniscule fraction of thecomputation power and time.

To enable training on simulated climate data and to maximize trainingdata availability, the CLIMATEAI system provides at least two additionalnovel features. The first is a process to validate the forecastingpotential of individual GCMs developed by different agencies underdifferent assumptions, and to generate a multi-model data ensemble byselecting and combining multiple validated and skillful GCMs. The secondnovel feature of the CLIMATEAI system is its ability to pre-process themulti-model data ensemble to reduce data heterogeneity, and to augmentthe data ensemble further, thus reinforcing the underlying hiddenfunctional dependencies among different simulated climate datasets.Other novel features will become apparent from the detailed descriptionof the invention when read in conjunction with the attached drawings.

As mentioned above, a key advantage of the present invention is itsminimal computing power requirement when compared with dynamicalmodel-based climate forecasting having similar performances. Forexample, when predicting the evolution of El Nino Southern Oscillationin the form of the Nino-3.4 index, a typical dynamical model-basedforecast system would require several days for a one-year simulation ona supercomputer with thousands of parallel processing cores. Because afull run of the dynamical model is needed for each target forecast,computational cost and time increase at least polynomially with forecastlead-time, exponentially with simulation spatial resolution, andlinearly with additional runs for ensemble modeling. By comparison,training CLIMATEAI neural networks typically takes a few hours for agiven set of forecasting targets, while the forecasting process itselfwould only take minutes on a standard GPU. Additionally, the CLIMATEAIsystem may be trained incrementally when new climate data becomeavailable. In what follows, illustrative embodiments of the CLIMATEAIclimate forecasting system and its sub-systems are presented. It wouldbe understood by persons of ordinary skill in the art that the blockdiagrams, schematics, and flowchart illustrations as presented hereinmay be implemented in the form of a computer program product, a hardwareproduct, a combination of computer program and hardware product, and/orapparatus, systems, computing devices, and/or the like to executeinstructions, operations, process steps as presented. Thus, embodimentsof the present invention may be implemented as computer program productscomprising articles of manufacture, such as a non-transitorycomputer-readable storage medium storing program codes, executableinstructions, and/or the like. Embodiments of the present disclosure mayalso be implemented as methods, apparatus, systems, computing devices,computing entities, and/or the like. As such, embodiments of the presentdisclosure may take the form of an apparatus, system, computing device,computing entity, and/or the like executing instructions stored on acomputer-readable storage medium to perform certain steps or operations.Embodiments of the present disclosure may also take the form of anentirely hardware embodiment, an entirely computer program productembodiment, and/or an embodiment that comprises combination of computerprogram products and hardware performing certain steps or operations.

System Architecture

FIG. 2A is an exemplary architecture diagram 200 for an illustrativeneural network (NN)-based climate forecasting system, according to someembodiments of the present invention. A CLIMATEAI system or sever 210may be communicatively connected to multiple domestic and internationalclimate research institutions and operational agencies such as the USGeophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) 201, the Norwegian ClimateCentre (NCC) 203, the German Max Planck Institute for Meteorology(MPI-M) 205, and the French National Centre for Meteorological Research(CNRM) 207. One or more global climate models and correspondingsimulation data such as GFDL-ESM2G 202, NorESM1-M 204, MPI-ESM-LR 206,and CNRM-CM5 208 may be retrieved and stored locally at CLIMATEAI server210.

In this disclosure, the terms global climate model (GCM), generalcirculation model, and earth system model are interchangeable, and allrefer to dynamical models that mathematically represent physical,chemical, and biological processes that contribute to the establishmentof climate conditions. That is, a GCM is represented by climatevariables, parameters, functional relationships among the climatevariables and parameters, and initial or boundary conditions. Each GCMmay comprise sub-models that are designed independently to representvarious interacting atmospheric, oceanic, land surface, or sea icecomponents. Simulation data from a GCM, GCM simulation data, or GCMdatasets refer to the numerical result of climate simulations runaccording to the GCM, and different simulation datasets may result fromthe same GCM under different model parameter settings and/or differentinitial or boundary conditions. For example, a GCM may produce differentsimulation datasets based on different model inputs, at differentspatial and temporal resolutions, for different output periods, and withdifferent bias correction schemes. As a GCM run often requires days oreven months of time on a supercomputer with thousands of processors,datasets produced from GCM simulation runs with key parameter settingsare conventionally given an official name and published by the climateresearch institution and operational agencies that design and maintainthe GCMs. Furthermore, without loss of generality, in this disclosure asimulation dataset from a GCM may comprise regional climate simulationdata. In other words, the term “GCM” in this disclosure covers climatemodels that are either global or regional.

Another type of dataset published by climate research agencies such as201, 203, 205, and 207 is climate reanalysis, which combines andassimilates observational historical data with physical dynamical modelsthat simulate one or more components of the Earth system to provide aphysically coherent and consistent, synthesized estimate of the climatein the past, while keeping the historical record uninfluenced byartificial factors. For example, instrumental measurements ofatmospheric data are scarcer over certain regions of the globe whengoing back further in time. Climate reanalysis fills in the gaps todeliver a global picture of the state of the atmosphere in the past asclose to reality as possible. A reanalysis typically extends overseveral decades, and reanalysis data often have key uses in monitoringclimate variations and changes, initializing and training climateforecasting models, and are increasingly being used in commercialapplications such as agriculture and water resource management. In theembodiment shown in FIG. 2A, CLIMATEAI system 210 may retrieveobservational historical climate data 225 including reanalysis data fromone or more of the climate research institutions and operationalagencies, or from an external database 220, for training, fine-tuning,and/or validating and testing an NN-based climate forecasting model.

In various embodiments, CLIMATEAI system 210 may comprise one or more ofa neural-network (NN) climate forecasting engine 211, a global climatemodel selection engine 212, a data pre-processing engine 213, and areporting engine 214. An “engine” here refers to a logical or physicalsoftware and/or hardware module with an encapsulated block offunctionality. As will be discussed in detail with references to FIGS.7-12, the NN-based climate forecasting engine 211 comprises one or moreartificial neural networks to capture the spatial, temporal, andfunctional dependencies among input data, and to project future climateconditions and/or events at a target lead-time.

As would be understood by persons of ordinary skill in machine learning,a neural network needs to be trained and validated on labeled data, andthe amount of training data required depends on the complexity of theproblem as well as the complexity of the neural network. CLIMATEAIsystem 210 exploits the forecasting potential of simulated globalclimate data such as 202, 204, 206, and 208 in the training process.CLIMATEAI system 210 first uses GCM selection engine 212 to validateindividual GCMs or GCM simulation datasets and generate a multi-modeldata ensemble by selecting and combining multiple validated and skillfulGCMs. The resulting multi-model data ensemble may be homogenizedspatially and temporally by data pre-processing engine 213, and may beaugmented artificially to increase the sample count of validated andskillful training data. One or more pre-processed multi-model simulationdata ensembles may then be used by forecasting engine 211 to train itsunderlying neural network, with further fine-tuning and testing onreanalysis data. Once trained, validated, and tested, the NN-basedclimate forecasting engine 211 may be deployed in a target climateforecasting application, that is, to predict a target output climatevariable at a target lead-time, based on values of a target inputclimate variable. A target “variable” may be a scalar or a vector.Forecasting engine 211 may also perform conventional ensemble modelingtechniques to rank, weight, and combine results from multipleforecasting runs to reduce forecast uncertainty. Reporting engine 214may further post-process, format, and plot climate forecasting results240, for display on a user device 230.

In some embodiments, user device 230 may be configured to receive userdata on forecast inputs and forecast targets, including but not limitedto, one or more of a target climate forecasting application, a targetoutput climate variable, a target lead-time, and other input data suchas GCM parameter settings and GCM model selection constraints. In someembodiments, the target climate forecasting application is specified bythe target output climate variable and target lead-time; in someembodiments, the target climate forecasting application is alsospecified by an input climate variable to the forecasting process. Insome embodiments, a target climate forecasting application may beassociated with multiple possible output climate variables. For example,an El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) forecasting application may beconfigured to predict one of the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI),Equatorial SOI, average sea surface temperature, Nino 3.4 index, and thelike, and the exact output climate variable may be determined based onuser input, and/or data availability. While shown as a desktop 230, userdevice 230 may be a user interface on CLIMATEAI system 210, or may beany type of personal or mobile computing entities capable offacilitating interactions with CLIMATEAI system 210. Moreover, in someembodiments, user device 230 may refer to external storage connected to,or internal storage within, CLIMATEAI system 210, where pre-configuredclimate forecast targets may be stored, and where climate forecastingresults may be saved. In other words, “user” here may refer to either ahuman user or a non-human entity.

FIG. 2B is an exemplary flow diagram 250 providing an illustrativeprocess overview of climate forecasting using the CLIMATEAI NN-basedclimate forecasting system 200 shown in FIG. 2A, according to someembodiments of the present invention. First, global climate simulationmodel and data 252 are retrieved from one or more databases at step 260.Generally, “receive”, “receipt,” “retrieve,” “retrieval,” “acquire,” or“access” to or of global climate simulation models and data refer to theactions of performing read and/or write operations to model parametersand simulation data in local or remote memory. Model selection and dataensemble generation are performed at step 265, based on forecastingtargets 262, including but not limited to, one or more of the targetclimate forecasting application, target output climate variable, targetlead-time for the forecast, and target forecast region. The resultingsimulation data ensemble is pre-processed and augmented at step 270 toreduce data heterogeneity, before being used to train the forecastingneural network at step 275. Neural network fine-tuning, validation, andtesting occur at step 280, based on observational historical data 282,possibly including reanalysis data. The trained NN-based climateforecasting model may be deployed for climate forecasting at step 285 togenerate a climate forecast result 295, and an optional post-processingstep 290 may be carried out to weight multiple projections.

Again, one illustrative advantage of the present invention is itsminimal computing power requirement when compared with dynamicalmodel-based climate forecasting systems. For example, when forecastingthe Nino 3.4 index, a standard GPU is sufficient for training,validating, testing, and forecasting with CLIMATEAI's NN-basedforecasting model. It takes O(c) amount of computation for the CLIMATEAIsystem to forecast n months ahead, where c represents a constant and nis an integer, since the neural network can be trained to forecastdirectly at the desired lead time. By comparison, a dynamicalmodel-based forecasting system needs to evolve the state of thedynamical models at a pre-determined time step, and can only forecast ona month-by-month basis, thus requiring at least an n-fold increase inthe necessary computation time and power. The computational advantagesof the CLIMATEAI system increase for longer lead times, for example onthe seasonal scale.

In the next subsection, exemplary client computing entities and servermanagement computing entities that may be used to implement differentembodiments of the CLIMATEAI system such as shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B arepresented. The CLIMATEAI system may include one or more client computingentities 300, connected through one or more networks, to one or moreserver or management computing entities 400, as illustrated in FIGS. 3and 4. Each of these components, entities, devices, systems, and similarwords used herein interchangeably may be in direct or indirectcommunication with, for example, one another over the same or differentwired or wireless networks. Additionally, while FIGS. 3 and 4 illustratethe various system entities as separate, standalone entities, thevarious embodiments are not limited to this particular architecture.

Exemplary Client Computing Entity

FIG. 3 is an exemplary schematic diagram 300 of a client computingentity that may be used to implement CLIMATEAI system 210 and/or userdevice 230 in FIG. 2A, according to exemplary embodiments of the presentinvention. That is, client computing entity 300 may be used to collector retrieve forecast targets from a user, for implementing NN-basedclimate forecasting system 210, for implementing one or more of themodules or engines 211, 212, 213, and 214, and/or for post-processing,storing, and displaying generated climate forecast results. A computingdevice 300 includes one or more components as shown in FIG. 3. As willbe recognized, the architectures discussed and correspondingdescriptions are provided in this section for illustrative purposes onlyand do not limit the scope of the present invention to these embodimentspresented.

In general, the terms device, system, computing entity, entity, and/orsimilar words used herein interchangeably may refer to, for example, oneor more computers, computing entities, desktops, mobile phones, tablets,phablets, notebooks, laptops, distributed systems, gaming consoles(e.g., Xbox, Play Station, Wii), watches, glasses, key fobs, radiofrequency identification (RFID) tags, earpieces, scanners, cameras,wristbands, kiosks, input terminals, servers or server networks, blades,gateways, switches, processing devices, processing entities, set-topboxes, relays, routers, network access points, base stations, the like,and/or any combination of devices or entities adapted to perform thefunctions, operations, and/or processes described herein. Suchfunctions, operations, and/or processes may include, for example,transmitting, receiving, retrieving, operating on, processing,displaying, storing, determining, creating, generating, generating fordisplay, monitoring, evaluating, comparing, and/or similar terms usedherein interchangeably. In various embodiments, these functions,operations, and/or processes can be performed on data, content,information, and/or similar terms used herein interchangeably.Furthermore, in embodiments of the present invention, computing device300 may be a general-purpose computing device with dedicated graphicalprocessing and artificial intelligence modules. It may alternatively beimplemented in the cloud, with logically and/or physically distributedarchitectures.

As shown in FIG. 3, computing entity 300 may include an antenna 370, aradio transceiver 320, and a processing unit 310 that provides signalsto and receives signals from the transceiver. The signals provided toand received from the transceiver may include signaling information inaccordance with air interface standards of applicable wireless systems.In this regard, computing entity 300 may be capable of operating withone or more air interface standards, communication protocols, modulationtypes, and access types. More particularly, computing entity 300 mayoperate in accordance with any of a number of wireless communicationstandards and protocols. In some embodiments, user computing entity 300may operate in accordance with multiple wireless communication standardsand protocols, such as 5G, UMTS, FDM, OFDM, TDM, TDMA, E-TDMA, GPRS,extended GPRS, CDMA, CDMA2000, 1×RTT, WCDMA, TD-SCDMA, GSM, LTE, LTEadvanced, EDGE, E-UTRAN, EVDO, HSPA, HSDPA, MDM, DMT, Wi-Fi, Wi-FiDirect, WiMAX, UWB, IR, NFC, ZigBee, Wibree, Bluetooth, and/or the like.Similarly, computing entity 300 may operate in accordance with multiplewired communication standards and protocols, via a network andcommunication interface 322.

Via these communication standards and protocols, computing entity 300can communicate with various other computing entities using conceptssuch as Unstructured Supplementary Service Data (USSD), Short MessageService (SMS), Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), Dual-ToneMulti-Frequency Signaling (DTMF), and/or Subscriber Identity ModuleDialer (SIM dialer). Computing entity 300 can also download changes,add-ons, and updates, for instance, to its firmware, software (e.g.,including executable instructions, applications, program modules), andoperating system.

In some implementations, processing unit 310 may be embodied in severaldifferent ways. For example, processing unit 310 may be embodied as oneor more complex programmable logic devices (CPLDs), microprocessors,multi-core processors, coprocessing entities, application-specificinstruction-set processors (ASIPs), microcontrollers, and/orcontrollers. Further, the processing unit may be embodied as one or moreother processing devices or circuitry. The term circuitry may refer toan entirely hardware embodiment or a combination of hardware andcomputer program products. Thus, processing unit 310 may be embodied asintegrated circuits, application specific integrated circuits (ASICs),field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), programmable logic arrays(PLAs), hardware accelerators, other circuitry, and/or the like. As willtherefore be understood, processing unit 310 may be configured for aparticular use or configured to execute instructions stored in volatileor non-volatile media or otherwise accessible to the processing unit. Assuch, whether configured by hardware or computer program products, or bya combination thereof, processing unit 310 may be capable of performingsteps or operations according to embodiments of the present inventionwhen configured accordingly.

In some embodiments, processing unit 310 may comprise a control unit 312and a dedicated arithmetic logic unit 314 (ALU) to perform arithmeticand logic operations. In some embodiments, user computing entity 300 maycomprise a graphics processing unit 340 (GPU) for specialized parallelprocessing tasks, and/or an artificial intelligence (AI) accelerator342, also specialized for applications including artificial neuralnetworks, and machine learning. In some embodiments, processing unit 310may be coupled with GPU 340 and/or AI accelerator 342 to distribute andcoordinate processing tasks.

In some embodiments, computing entity 300 may include a user interface,comprising an input interface 350 and an output interface 352, eachcoupled to processing unit 310. User input interface 350 may compriseany of a number of devices or interfaces allowing computing entity 300to receive data, such as a keypad (hard or soft), a touch display, a micfor voice/speech, and a camera for motion or posture interfaces. Useroutput interface 352 may comprise any of a number of devices orinterfaces allowing computing entity 300 to provide information to auser, such as through the touch display, or a speaker for audio outputs.In some embodiments, output interface 352 may connect computing entity300 to an external loudspeaker or projector, for audio or visual output.

Computing entity 300 may also include volatile and/or non-volatilestorage or memory 330, which can be embedded and/or may be removable. Anon-volatile memory may be ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, flash memory, MMCs,SD memory cards, Memory Sticks, CBRAM, PRAM, FeRAM, NVRAM, MRAM, RRAM,SONOS, FJG RAM, Millipede memory, racetrack memory, and/or the like. Thevolatile memory may be RAM, DRAM, SRAM, FPM DRAM, EDO DRAM, SDRAM, DDRSDRAM, DDR2 SDRAM, DDR3 SDRAM, RDRAM, TTRAM, T-RAM, Z-RAM, RIMM, DIMM,SIMM, VRAM, cache memory, register memory, and/or the like. The volatileand non-volatile storage or memory may store an operating system 334,application software 336, data 338, databases, database instances,database management systems, programs, program modules, scripts, sourcecode, object code, byte code, compiled code, interpreted code, machinecode, executable instructions, and/or the like to implement thefunctions of computing entity 300. As indicated, this may include aclimate forecasting application that is resident on the entity oraccessible through a browser or other interfaces for communicating witha management computing entity and/or various other computing entities.

In some embodiments, computing entity 300 may communicate to externaldevices like other computing devices and/or access points to receiveinformation such as software or firmware, or to send information fromthe memory of the computing entity to external systems or devices suchas servers, computers, smartphones, and the like.

In some embodiments, two or more computing entities such as 300 mayestablish connections using a network utilizing any of the networkingprotocols listed previously. In some embodiments, the computing devicesmay use a network interface such as 322 to communicate with each other,such as by communicating data, content, information, and/or similarterms used herein interchangeably that can be transmitted, received,operated on, processed, displayed, stored, and/or the like.

In some embodiments, data such as climate forecasting results may beuploaded by one or more computing devices 300 to a server such as 400shown in FIG. 4 when the device accesses a network connection, such as awireless access point or hotspot. The data transfer may be performedusing protocols like file transfer protocol (FTP), MQ telemetrytransport (MQTT), advanced message queuing protocol (AMQP), hypertexttransfer protocol (HTTP), and HTTP secure (HTTPS). These protocols maybe made secure over transport layer security (TLS) and/or secure socketslayer (SSL).

In some embodiments, dedicated algorithms including artificialintelligence-based machine learning algorithms may be used to perform atleast one of the following: (i) compute one or more validation measuresfor a GCM (ii) evaluate a forecast skill of a GCM simulation dataset,based on a data predictor, a forecast model analog, or a full climateforecast model, (iii) rank and combine simulation data from multipleGCMs into a data ensemble, (iv) homogenize a climate data ensemble byspatial re-gridding and/or temporal normalization, (v) augment a climatedata ensemble based on climatology, temporal scaling, and/or statisticalresampling, and (vi) train and validate a neural network.

To provide for or aid in the numerous determinations (e.g., determine,ascertain, infer, calculate, predict, prognose, estimate, derive,forecast, detect, compute, or generate) of climate forecasting processesdescribed herein, components described herein may examine the entiretyor a subset of data to which it is granted access and can provide forreasoning about or determine states of the system. Determinations may beemployed to generate a probability distribution over states of interest,based on a consideration of data. Determinations may also refer totechniques employed for composing higher-level events from one or moredatasets.

Such determinations may result in the construction of an optimization,convergence, forecast, or projection from a set of stored observationaland/or simulation data. For example, components disclosed herein mayemploy various prediction and classification schemes and/or systems(e.g., support vector machines, neural networks, expert systems,Bayesian belief networks, fuzzy logic, data fusion engines, etc.) inconnection with performing automatic and/or determined action inconnection with the claimed subject matter. Thus, schemes and/or systemsas disclosed herein may be used to automatically learn and perform anumber of functions, actions, and/or determinations.

Exemplary Management Computing Entity

FIG. 4 is an exemplary schematic diagram 400 of a management computingentity for implementing a NN-based climate forecasting system, accordingto exemplary embodiments of the present invention. The terms computingentity, computer, entity, device, system, and/or similar words usedherein interchangeably are explained in detail with reference to clientcomputing entity 300. A management computing entity 400 may be employedto implement components of CLIMATEAI system 210, to perform actions suchas NN training, validation, testing, and climate forecasting, possiblyon demand via a remote connection. Management computing entity 400 mayalso aggregate and post-process climate forecasting results from one ormore sources, including NN-based climate forecasting systems and/ordynamical model-based forecasting systems.

As indicated, in one embodiment, management computing entity 400 mayinclude one or more network or communications interface 420 forcommunicating with various computing entities, such as by communicatingdata, content, information, and/or similar terms used hereininterchangeably that can be transmitted, received, operated on,processed, displayed, stored, and/or the like. For instance, managementcomputing entity 400 may communicate with one or more client computingdevices such as 300 and/or a variety of other computing entities.Network or communications interface 420 may utilize a wired datatransmission protocol, such as fiber distributed data interface (FDDI),digital subscriber line (DSL), Ethernet, asynchronous transfer mode(ATM), frame relay, data over cable service interface specification(DOCSIS), or any other wired transmission protocol. Similarly,management computing entity 400 may be configured to communicate viawireless external communication networks using any of a variety ofstandards and protocols as discussed with reference to client computingdevice 300.

As shown in FIG. 4, in one embodiment, management computing entity 400may include or be in communication with one or more processing unit 410(also referred to as processors, processing circuitry, processingelement, and/or similar terms used herein interchangeably) thatcommunicate with other elements within management computing entity 400.Processing unit 410 may be embodied in a number of different ways. Forexample, as one or more CPLDs, microprocessors, multi-core processors,coprocessing entities, ASIPs, microcontrollers, and/or controllers, inthe form of integrated circuits, application specific integratedcircuits (ASICs), field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), programmablelogic arrays (PLAs), hardware accelerators, other circuitry, and/or thelike. As will therefore be understood, processing unit 410 may beconfigured for a particular use or configured to execute instructionsstored in volatile or non-volatile media 430 and 440. As such, whetherconfigured by hardware or computer program products, or by a combinationthereof, processing unit 410 may be capable of performing steps oroperations according to embodiments of the present disclosure whenconfigured accordingly.

Although not shown explicitly, management computing entity 400 mayinclude or be in communication with one or more input elements, such asa keyboard, a mouse, a touch screen/display, and/or the like. Managementcomputing entity 400 may also include or be in communication with one ormore output elements such as speaker, screen/display, and/or the like.

In various embodiments, one or more of the components of managementcomputing entity 400 may be located remotely from other managementcomputing entity components, such as in a distributed system or in thecloud. Furthermore, one or more of the components may be combined andadditional components performing functions described herein may beincluded in the management computing entity 400.

Artificial Neural Network for Climate Forecasting

As described herein, embodiments of the present invention use one ormore artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) algorithmsor modules to perform weather and climate forecasting, on regional andglobal scales. Various exemplary ML algorithms are within the scope ofthe present invention used for performing global climate modelselection, data pre-processing and augmentation, and climate forecastingand projection. The following description describes in detailillustrative ML techniques for implementing various embodiments of thepresent invention.

Neural Network Design: Convolutional Recurrent Neural Networks (CRNN)

FIG. 5A is an exemplary artificial neural network design for climateforecasting, according to some embodiments of the present invention.This exemplary neural network (NN) 500 is for illustration only and doesnot limit the scope of the invention to the particular NN architectureand particular forecasting application shown. NNs can be viewed asparallel, densely interconnected computational models that adaptivelylearn through automatic adjustment of system parameters based ontraining data. Input information are modified based on system parameterswhen traversing through layers of interconnected neurons or nodes, toactivate or trigger particular outputs. The design of an NN refers tothe configuration of its architecture and topology, or the specificarrangements of layers and nodes in the network. In some embodiments,the design of the NN may also comprise determination or configurationtechniques for pre-training the NN and/or for initialization ofhyperparameters and model coefficients.

In this illustrative example, NN 500 may be setup to take, as input, a24-month time series of monthly surface temperatures on a global 192×96map or grid, and to forecast the Nino-3.4 index at a specified targetlead-time such as 6 months into the future. FIG. 5B shows a graphicalrepresentation 550 of an exemplary data input, such as input climatedata image 510, into NN 500, according to some embodiments of thepresent invention. In FIG. 5B, land surface and sea surface temperatureanomalies on Apr. 1, 1980 are plotted on a two-dimensional grid 550 onthe Earth's surface. This two-dimensional grid 550 in FIG. 5B is of size26×14, much smaller than 192×96, for illustrative purpose only. Size ofinput image 510 in FIG. 5A is a hyperparameter of NN 500 and may beconfigured differently in different embodiments of the presentinvention.

NN 500 is a Convolutional Recurrent Neural Network (CRNN) with aconvolutional and recurrent architecture: it encodes the spatialinformation of each global surface temperature grid using aConvolutional Neural Network (CNN) first, then feeds the encodedinformation into a Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) having Long Short-TermMemory (LSTM) layers to learn from the temporal sequence. A CNN utilizesthe process of convolution to reduce the number of model parameters, andto capture the spatial dependencies in input data. An RNN, on the otherhand, has connections that form a directed graph along a temporalsequence, to recognize sequential characteristics and patterns withinthe input data to predict a future event or scenario.

More specifically, NN 500 first feeds 2-dimensional inputs 510 throughmultiple convolution (Conv2D) layers with Rectified Linear Units (ReLU),then a fully connected (FC) layer 520. In this illustrative embodiment,the CNN comprises 6 layers with the following network details:[Conv2D=>batch normalization=>ReLU]×5=>[Conv2D=>ReLU]=>FC. Aconvolutional layer applies a convolution or correlation operation by akernel matrix to the input data to generate a feature map of the inputimage. ReLU is a non-linear activation function. A fully connected layerhas full connections to all activations in the previous layer, and isneeded before classification or output activation at an output layer ofthe NN. Successive convolution-ReLU-pooling stages allow the successiveextraction of low-level to high-level features, from local temperaturecorrelations to distant teleconnections. The first convolutional layerin FIG. 5A may use 10 filters, and the number of filters may double inevery subsequent convolutional layer. Paddings and strides may bedefined to get desired size reductions. Output vector 525 from fullyconnected layer 520 may feed into an RNN 530 in sequences of successivemonths, such as 24 months. RNN 530 may have a many-to-one architecture,and may use two LSTM layers, each having 500 hidden units. At the end,the hidden state of the last time step may be decoded to a real valueusing another fully connected layer, to output predicted monthlyNino-3.4 sea surface temperature anomalies.

FIG. 5A shows only one illustrative CRNN architecture that is within thescope of the present invention, but the present invention is not limitedto the use of CRNNs, or the particular architectural design andhyperparameter settings presented. Other machine learning algorithms andNN designs are also within the scope of the present invention. Forexample, NN 500 may comprise a Spherical Convolutional Neural Network(S²-CNN) that is invariant or equivariant to 3D rotations and is capableof analyzing spherical images instead of 2D planar images. In someembodiments using an S²-CNN, simulation data pre-processing may first beperformed to transform planar data such as 510 and 550 back into aspherical mesh.

FIG. 5C is an exemplary Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) cell 580 for usein RNN 530 in FIG. 5A. LSTMs are a special type of RNN capable oflearning long-term dependencies in sequence prediction problems. Thelong-term memory refers to learned weights, and the short-term memoryrefers to gated cell states.

Training Machine Learning Algorithms

FIG. 6A shows an exemplary flow diagram 600 for training a machinelearning (ML) algorithm, such as CRNN 500 for climate forecasting,according to exemplary embodiments of the present invention.

The training process begins at step 610 with data acquisition,retrieval, assimilation, or generation. At step 620, acquired data arepre-processed, or prepared. At step 630, the ML model is trained usingtraining data 625. At step 640, the ML model is evaluated, validated,and tested, and further refinements to the ML model are fed back intostep 630 for additional training. Once its performance is acceptable, atstep 650, optimal model parameters are selected, for deployment at step660. New data 655 may be used by the deployed model to make predictions.

Training data 625 is a documented dataset containing multiple instancesof system inputs (e.g., input climate variables) and correct outcomes(e.g., forecasting results of output climate variables). It trains theML model to optimize the performance for a specific target task, such asforecasting a specific target output climate variable at a specifictarget lead-time. In diagram 600, training data 625 may also includesubsets for validating and testing the ML model. For an NN-based MLmodel, the quality of the output may depend on (a) NN architecturedesign and hyperparameter configurations, (b) NN coefficient orparameter optimization, and (c) quality of the training data set. Thesecomponents may be refined and optimized using various methods. Forexample, training data 625 may be expanded via a climate dataaugmentation process.

Transfer Learning

Generally, ML algorithms assume that training data, validation data,testing data, and new data used during model deployment all have thesame statistical distribution and are within the same feature space. Forexample, in an ideal climate forecasting scenario, training, validation,testing, and forecasting data are all physically coherent and consistenthistorical observations and measurements. The short observational recordof climate data therefore significantly limits the predictive power oftypical ML-based forecasting systems.

The CLIMATEAI system tackles this limitation on observational historicaldata availability with novel processes that enable the application oftransfer learning techniques. FIG. 6B is an illustrative diagram 670comparing traditional machine learning to transfer learning in thecontext of climate forecasting, according to some embodiments of thepresent invention. Transfer learning is also known as knowledgetransfer, multi-task learning, and incremental/cumulative learning.Traditional machine learning techniques 680 try to learn each taskseparately from dedicated training datasets, while transfer learning 690tries to transfer the knowledge from some previous source tasks to atarget task when the latter has fewer high-quality training data. In thecontext of climate forecasting, the CLIMATEAI system applies knowledgefrom GCM simulation data to the task of forecasting future climates.While the concept of using GCM data for training a forecasting model mayseem straight forward, it is far from being so, for each available GCMsimulation dataset has been generated under different assumptions, withdifferent parameter settings and goals, leading to very differentforecasting skills for any one specific target forecasting application.

Global Climate Model (GCM) Selection and Multi-Model Data EnsembleGeneration

As a first step in enabling the use of GCM simulation data in training aNN-network based climate forecasting model, FIG. 7 is an exemplary flowdiagram 700 for a process to generate a multi-model ensemble of globalclimate simulation data, according to some embodiments of the presentinvention. In this illustrative example, data from different input GCMs710 are examined for its statistical properties and forecasting skills,and aggregated into a multi-model data ensemble 790.

More specifically, six climate simulation datasets 711, 712, 713, 714,715, and 716 are first analyzed based on forecast targets 718. Forexample, simulation datasets CNRM-CMS, MPI-ESM-LR, GISS-E2-H, NorESM1-M,HadGEM2-ES, and GFDL-ESM2G may be used. For simplicity, it is assumedthat the six datasets are from six different GCMs here. It would thus beunderstood that a “GCM” here may also refer to the correspondingsimulation dataset directly.

More generally, some of the datasets 711 to 716 may be from the sameGCM, but were generated under different model parameters and/or initialconditions. In addition, only six datasets are drawn in FIG. 7 forillustrative purposes only. In another exemplary embodiment, forty inputGCMs or GCM datasets may be used as input to the process, with tenvalidated via step 720, and six identified as skillful via step 740.

Forecast targets 718 may include, but are not limited to, a scalar orvector target output climate variable to be predicted, a targetlead-time at which the target output climate variable is to bepredicted, and confidence levels for the forecasting results. Examplesof a target output climate variable may include average monthlytemperature and precipitation, average daily minimum temperature,seasonal minimum temperature, sea surface temperature, annual maximumwind speed, an index of a climate event such as El Nino SouthernOscillation (ENSO), and the like. A target lead-time may be on a monthlyor a yearly scale, such as 3-months ahead, 6-months ahead, or 1-yearahead.

A step 720, a validation measure is computed for each GCM or GCMdataset, for at least one climate variable using observationalhistorical climate data 716. For example, a GCM may be validated aroundone or more signal statistics of the at least one climate variable,where the validation measure measures the closeness between GCMsimulation data statistics and that of observational historical data. Insome embodiments, the at least one climate variable may be the targetoutput climate variable as specified by forecasting targets 718 for aspecific forecasting application. In some embodiments, the at least oneclimate variable may be one or more climate variables having directfunctional dependencies with the target output climate variable. In yetsome embodiments, the at least one climate variable may be an inputclimate variable to the forecasting system, one or more climatevariables having direct functional dependencies with the input climatevariable, or any other set of climate variables having some measurablesignificance on the target forecasting application. In one instance, theat least one climate variable is sea surface temperature for an El Ninoregion, and the statistics of interest may include bias, variance,correlation, autocorrelation over time, frequency of peaks, and thelike. Sea surface temperature may be chosen here based on the targetoutput variable being the Nino-3.4 index. GCM simulation datasets forwhich signal statistics match, or is close to the same statistics of theobservational historical data may be considered a properly modeled, orvalidated dataset. The validation measure or measure of closeness may becomputed through Mahalanobis distance, Euclidean distance, or otherappropriate distance measures, and “validated” datasets may havevalidation measures below a static or dynamic validation threshold. Forexample, GCMs may be ranked based on their validation measures, and thevalidation threshold may be chosen so a specific number of GCMs areconsidered “validated.” The computed signal statistics may betransformed into uncorrelated variables first with their variancesscaled to 1, prior to calculating the distance measures. In thisillustrative example, four GCM datasets 711, 712, 713, and 716 haveacceptable validation measures and make up a validated GCM subset 730.

At step 740, validated GCMs or GCM simulation datasets are furtherevaluated for their ability to forecast the target output climatevariable, or for their ability to forecast some climate variables highlycorrelated with the target output climate variable. In some embodiments,a forecast skill score is computed for each validated GCM based on aforecast function, where the forecast function may be a data predictorfunction on the target output variable, the NN-based climate forecastingmodel which will be trained using data ensemble 790, or a model-analog.

The data predictor function on the target output variable may predictthe target output variable such as the Nino-3.4 index directly from theGCM data, or may predict another closely related climate variable, suchas the Nino-3 index and/or the Nino-4 index.

Evaluating forecasting skills of a GCM using the NN-based climateforecasting model directly may be viewed as a recursive or iterativeapproach, where each GCM is individually assessed preliminarily, beforebeing augmented further into an ensemble, or before multiple GCMs arecombined into an ensemble. The resulting data ensemble may be furtherassessed for its overall forecasting skills. Here the NN-based climateforecasting model may have been pre-trained, for example on limitedamount of reanalysis data, or pre-existing image recognition databases.

By comparison, when a large number of large GCM datasets are used asinput 710, model analogs may provide a less computationally intensivealternative. A model analog is a simpler forecasting model or a simpleralgorithm that is analog to the more complex, NN-based forecastingmodel, and can generate analog forecasts for evaluating GCM forecastingskills. For example, in one model-analog approach, some initial statesof a GCM simulation may be compared to observational historical datarelated to the target output climate variable, and matching ones may beevolved to generate forecasts that are evaluated for its accuracy.

In meteorology, a forecasting model may be considered “skillful” if itcan better predict a target output climate variable than a random guess,a historical average, or an average value computed from GCM data.Forecast skill may be measured by a mean square error (MSE), acorrelation between the forecast and the actual values of the targetclimate variable, or other appropriate error or distance metrics. SuchMSE or correlation value computed for the forecast function discussedabove may be viewed as a forecast skill score, and used for selecting avalidated and skillful subset of GCMs. Depending on the definition ofthe forecast skill score, a best-scored GCM may be one with a highforecast skill score, or one with a low forecast skill score. In thisillustrative example, three GCM datasets 711, 712, and 716 are chosen asbest-scored datasets and make up a validated and skillful GCM subset750. Again, forecast skill scores may be compared to a threshold; GCMdatasets may also be ranked based on their forecast skill scores and adesired number of GCMs may be selected.

In step 760, the best-scored GCM datasets may be combined into candidatedata ensembles 770 through different permutation and combinationtechniques, for another forecast skill evaluation step 780. The goal isto find data ensembles that may improve upon the forecast skill ofindividual GCMs. For example, two validated and skillful GCMs 711 and712 may be concatenated (e.g., 711 followed by 712, or 712 followed by711), interleaved at particular intervals (e.g., alternating between10-years of data from 711 and 10-years of data from 712), repeated agiven number of times (e.g., concatenating 711, 712, 711, etc.), orcombined in any other reasonable way.

In step 780, forecast skill may be evaluated by computing an ensembleforecast skill score for each candidate data ensemble, from anensemble-based data predictor function on the target output variable,the NN-based climate forecasting model, or a model analog, similar to instep 740.

The data predictor function in step 780 may be different from the oneused in step 740, and so may be the model analog. In some embodiments, adata predictor or a model analog may be used in step 740, while the fullNN-based prediction model may be used in step 780, as is the case inFIG. 7. Such successive “filtering” operations allow optimized use ofcomputation power and time. In some embodiments, the generated candidateensembles 770 are passed through a data pre-processing step 775 beforestep 780, to clean, homogenize, and/or possibly augment the ensembledatasets before forecast skill evaluation. Data pre-processing step 775may be implemented using a data pre-processing engine such as 820 shownin FIG. 8.

Based on ensemble forecast skill scores computed in step 780, a bestmulti-model ensemble 790 of global climate simulation data may begenerated, for use in training the NN-based climate forecasting modelfor the selected target output climate variable.

In yet some other embodiments of the present invention, a “multi-model”data ensemble may refer to a data ensemble generated by augmenting asingle GCM or GCM simulation dataset. That is, given a validated andskillful GCM such as 711, in step 760, data augmentation may beperformed to augment GCM 711 using climatology augmentation or McKinnonaugmentation techniques according to process 860 in FIG. 8, Such acandidate data ensemble may be evaluated for its forecast skill in step780 against other candidate data ensembles generated from single GCMs ormultiple GCMs. In this disclosure, an augmented dataset generated from asingle GCM simulation dataset may also be called a “mad-model ensemble”as it comprises different versions of the original GCM simulationdataset.

Multi-Model GCM Data Pre-Processing

FIG. 8 is an exemplary block diagram 800 for pre-processing amulti-model ensemble of global climate simulation data, according tosome embodiments of the present invention.

Given a set of forecast targets 810 including, but not limited to, atarget output climate variable 812, a target lead-time 814, and a targetforecast region 816, data pre-processing engine 820 may perform one ormore of the following using one or more sub-modules: gap filling 822,outliner detection 824, outliner tagging 826, error handling 828, flagremoval 830, duplicate data seeking and removal 832, ocean, land, andatmospheric model homogenization 834, spatial re-gridding andhomogenization 840, temporal homogenization 850, and data augmentation860. In FIG. 8, each block within data pre-processing engine 820represents a submodule that is labeled by the process it performs.

During gap filling 822, data pre-processing engine 820 may fill in datagaps within each GCM dataset, spatially or temporally, usinginterpolation, extrapolation, and data duplication and replacementtechniques.

During flag removal 830, data pre-processing engine 820 may firstidentify unusual data, then remove flags and/or tag the databaseaccording to data requirements from a data pipeline of the NN-basedforecasting model.

In some embodiments, additional user provided GCM simulation data 818may also be cleaned and pre-processed for use in a data pipeline of theNN-based climate forecasting model. For spatial and temporalhomogenization 840 and 850, data pre-processing engine 820 may firstdetermine a common spatial scale and a common temporal scale for themulti-model ensemble of global climate simulation data as generatedthrough a process such as 700. The type and design of these commonscales may depend on forecasting targets 810.

Spatial re-gridding 840 is the process of transforming, interpolating,or extrapolating from one grid resolution, scale, or coordinate systemto another resolution, scale, or coordinate system. Exemplary spatialgrids used in climate research include regular, rectilinear,curvilinear, and unstructured. The choice of spatial grids used for aGCM often depend on computational power and efficiency, but also mayneed to take into account of pole singularities, meridian convergence,and other physical constraints posed when georeferencing locations on ageosphere. Exemplary interpolation methods for spatial re-gridding andhomogenization includes bilinear, nearest neighbor, spline, andtriangulation, as well as multi-stage techniques that meet certainphysical or mathematical constraints.

In some embodiments, spatial re-gridding may be performed iteratively,where the forecast skill of a spatially re-gridded multi-model GCMsimulation data ensemble is evaluated, and the common spatial scalemodified, updated, or entirely regenerated based on the forecast skill.In some embodiments, such iterative spatial re-gridding may occursubsequent to step 740 or 760 in FIG. 7.

Temporal homogenization 850 is the process of normalizing data fromdifferent GCMs onto the same time scale or axis, including the same datesystem. GCMs from different sources typically use their own individualtime scales. For example, a GCM may use a 360-day year or a 365-dayyear, 30-day months or Gregorian months, may not consider leap yearsand/or months, and may not use the Gregorian calendar. Timehomogenization normalizes data from different GCMs into the samecalendar year, and may further remove yearly signals to make all dataequivalent on a yearly basis.

Data augmentation, in machine learning, is the process to artificiallyexpand the size of a training dataset by creating modified versions ofexisting training data, and is commonly used to create variations intraining data that improve the performance of the task model. Forexample, in computer vision where a training dataset comprises coloredimages of objects, a data augmentation process may employ one or moreimage processing techniques such as shifting, padding, masking,rotating, flipping, zooming into or out from, sharpening, blurring,brightening, or darkening a given image. Process 860 is tailoredspecifically for global climate data augmentation. In variousembodiments, climate data augmentation process 860 may comprise one ormore of statistical augmentation, climatology augmentation, temporalaugmentation, and image occlusion, including land/sea masking.

Statistical augmentation broadly refers to generating synthetic butfeasible states of climate variables, such as temperature andprecipitation, that have the same statistical distributions as realobservational climate data or GCM simulation data. One statisticalaugmentation method is the McKinnon Data Augmentation (MDA) technique,which leverages three climate indices: El Nino-Southern Oscillation(ENSO), Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO), and Pacific DecadalOscillation (PDO). These indices measure the state of the warm and coldtemperature cycles in the Equatorial Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean,and the Northern Pacific Ocean, and affect climate variables such astemperature and precipitation throughout the world. MDA may also extracta global forcing signal (e.g., global warming), and an internalvariability signal (e.g., weather). MDA uses linear regression andsurrogate time series generation techniques to generate alternate ENSO,AMO and PDO time series with means, variances, and autocorrelationssimilar to the original time series, and bootstraps all five signals togenerate alternate estimates of climate states, which may in turn beused for GCM data augmentation.

In this disclosure, climatology augmentation refers to the generation ofsynthetic but feasible states of climate variables based on differentclimatology references, such as different versions of long-termaverages. Given an individual GCM dataset or a multi-model GCM dataensemble, the climatology augmentation process may first separate thedata signals into long-term signals or trends, global warming signals,seasonal signals, and other signal components caused by similarcontributing climate factors. The long-term signal trends may be alteredor replaced within a feasible range to generate augmentation data.Without loss of generality, note that climate variables typicallymeasure the average weather in a given region over a 30-year period;given a GCM dataset or GCM data ensemble, different 30-year averages maybe computed or sampled, for example as fifty running averages over a79-year period. These fifty 30-year averages may be used to calculatefifty different versions of the GCM dataset as climatology-augmenteddata. That is, temperature anomaly map 550 in FIG. 5B may bere-calculated for fifty different 30-year temperature averages.

Temporal augmentation is the process to remove or duplicate data alongthe time axis, possibly randomly. For example, a selected set of monthsmay be removed, or duplicated in the GCM data time series, representinga speedup or a slowdown of the underlying physical climate processes.

Image occlusion is the process to crop out or occlude some portions of a2D climate data image such as temperature anomaly map 550. For example,a random number of randomly located squares of a fixed or random sizemay be cropped out. The number, size, locations of portions of a climatedata image to occlude, and the number of occlusion attempts, arehyperparameters of the image occlusion-based data augmentation process.In some embodiments, land-sea masks may be used for occluding selectedportions of the climate data image to focus on land only or on sea only.

Neural Network Training and Validation

Using the multi-model global climate simulation data ensemble generationand pre-processing processes shown in FIGS. 7 and 8, FIG. 9 provides anexemplary flow diagram 900 for a process to generate and train an NNclimate forecasting model using the multi-model data ensemble, accordingto some embodiments of the present invention. The NN climate forecastingmodel may be further fine-tuned and validated on observationalhistorical data including reanalysis data, before being deployed foractual climate forecasting.

In this illustrative example, forecasting targets 905 are used forglobal climate simulation model selection and data ensemble generationat step 910, with the data ensemble pre-processed and augmented in step920. In some embodiments, forecasting targets 905 may be received from ahuman user through a user computing device such as 230 in FIG. 2A. Insome embodiments, forecasting targets 905 may be received from anon-human user, for example as a data file retrieved from a storagemedium. As discussed with reference to process 700 in FIG. 7, during GCMselection and data ensemble generation, data predictor functions usedfor forecast skill score evaluation may be customized based onforecasting targets 905, such as the forecasting application asspecified by a target output climate variable and a target lead-time.

In an optional step 925, a neural network such as CRNN 500 in FIG. 5 maybe designed, generated, and/or updated, based on forecasting targets905. That is, hyperparameters of CRNN 500 may be configured in step 925for different forecasting applications. For example, a loss function forthe NN may be chosen. For threshold applications, such as when an ElNino event is to be predicted, cross-entropy loss may be used; fornumerical applications, such as when an average temperature is to bepredicted, the sigmoid function may be used instead. Furthermore, basedon the specific forecasting application as specified by a desired outputclimate variable, an input variable to the NN may be customized. Forexample, to predict surface temperature, 2m air temperature or airtemperature at 2 meters above the surface may be used as input; topredict sea surface temperate, air temperature may be used as input.Moreover, depending on the target lead-time, and/or a specific timehorizon which is a fixed point of time in the future when the forecastoccurs, the structure or architecture of the NN may be customized. Forexample, to forecast January sea surface temperature at 9-monthslead-time, the NN may be customized to forecast month-by-month topredict January's 9-months ahead.

Once NN hyperparameters are configured, training of the NN may beperformed at step 930 on the pre-processed multi-model ensemble ofglobal climate simulation data. In some embodiments, additionalpre-training may occur in between steps 925 and 930 as an initializationof the NN, with all layers of the network unfrozen.

Further fine-tuning of the NN may occur at step 940, based onobservational historical data 935 including reanalysis data 938. Recallthat climate reanalysis combines and assimilates observationalhistorical data with physical dynamical models to “fill in gaps” andprovide a physically coherent and consistent, synthesized estimate ofthe climate in the past, while keeping the historical recorduninfluenced by artificial factors. The availability of reanalysis datais limited by that of the observational historical data, and typicalreanalysis datasets span over 40 to 80 years. To maximize theeffectiveness of reanalysis data 938 in step 940, in some embodiments,some NN layers may be frozen during tuning, with only a selected subsetof NN layers further updated. For example, in CRNN 500 shown in FIG. 5A,the first five convolutional layers and the RNN may be frozen, while thelast convolutional layer is fine-tuned on 80 years of reanalysis data.

Once trained, the climate forecasting NN may be validated and tested atstep 950, using validation and test sets comprising; observationalhistorical data. In some embodiments, all available observationalhistorical data including reanalysis data may be divided by year into atuning set, a validation set, and/or a testing set, for use in steps 940and 950. Based on validation results that indicate forecast uncertaintyor confidence, any of the steps 910, 920, 930 and 940 may be repeated toupdate the NN climate forecasting model and improve performance of theforecasting system. The fully trained NN may be deployed in step 960 foractual climate forecasting.

Exemplary Embodiments for NN-Based Climate Forecasting

FIG. 10 is another exemplary flow diagram 1000 for a process to generateand train an NN-based climate forecasting model, according to someembodiments of the present invention. Upon initialization at step 1005,global climate simulation data 1006 from at least two global climatesimulation models are combined at step 1010 into a multi-model ensemble.The multi-model ensemble is then pre-processed at step 1020, where thepre-processing comprises at least one pre-processing action selectedfrom the group consisting of spatial re-gridding, temporalhomogenization, and data augmentation. At step 1030, a neural network(NN)-based climate forecasting model is trained on the pre-processedmulti-model global climate simulation data ensemble, and validated on aset of observational historical climate data at step 1040. Theobservational historical climate data may comprise reanalysis data, andthe NN's hyperparameters may be fine-tuned during the validation processas well. At an optional step 1050, the NN-based climate forecastingmodel may be deployed, and the process ends at step 1060.

FIG. 11 is another exemplary flow diagram 1100 for a process to generatea multi-model ensemble of global climate simulation data, according tosome embodiments of the present invention. The process flow shown indiagram 1100 is an exemplary implementation of step 1010 in FIG. 10.Upon initialization at step 1105, a plurality of Global Climate Models(GCMs) are first examined. A GCM validation measure is computed for eachof the plurality of GCMs, based on at least one sample statistic for atleast one climate variable of simulation data from the GCM, where anNN-based climate forecasting model forecasts a target output climatevariable at a target lead time 1110. At step 1120, a validated subset ofthe plurality of GCMs is selected, by comparing each computed GCMvalidation measure to a validation threshold determined based on a setof observational historical climate data. At step 1130, a forecast skillscore is computed for each validated GCM, based on a first forecastfunction selected from the group consisting of a first data predictorfunction on the target output variable, the NN-based climate forecastingmodel, and a model analog of the NN-based climate forecasting model.Next at step 1140, a validated and skillful subset of GCMs is selectedby choosing at least two best-scored GCMs. At step 1150, one or morecandidate ensembles of global climate simulation data are generated bycombining simulation data from at least two validated and skillful GCMsfrom the validated and skillful subset of GCMs. At step 1160, anensemble forecast skill score is computed for each candidate ensemble,based on a forecast function selected from the group consisting of asecond ensemble-based data predictor function on the target outputvariable, the NN-based climate forecasting model, and a model analog ofthe NN-based climate forecasting model. At step 1170, a multi-modelensemble of global climate simulation data is generated by selecting abest-scored candidate ensemble of global climate simulation data. Theoverall process terminates at step 1180.

FIG. 12 is another exemplary flow diagram 1200 for a process topre-process a multi-model ensemble of global climate simulation data,according to some embodiments of the present invention. The process flowshown in diagram 1200 is an exemplary implementation of step 1020 inFIG. 10. Upon initiation, a multi-model ensemble of global climatesimulation data 1205 is examined at step 1210 to determine a commonspatial scale and a common temporal scale, where data ensemble 1205comprises simulation data from at least two GCMs, or two GCM simulationdatasets. At step 1220, data ensemble 1205 is re-gridded to the commonspatial scale. At step 1230, data ensemble 1205 is homogenizedtemporally to the common temporal scale. At step 1240, data ensemble1205 is augmented by generating synthetic simulation data ensemble 1205.In various embodiments, steps 1220, 1230 and 1240 may be performed inany order. The process ends at step 1250.

Exemplary Results for NN-Based El Nino Forecasting

In this section, results from an illustrative example of the NN-basedclimate forecasting system is provided, where a neural network (NN) istrained to predict monthly Nino-3.4 sea surface temperatures anomalies,which in turn projects the Nino 3.4 Index.

The El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a cycle of warm (El Nino) andcold (La Nina) temperatures in the equatorial Pacific Ocean thatinfluences weather patterns around the world. It impacts North Americantemperature and precipitation, the Indian Monsoon, and hurricanes in theAtlantic. Thus, it has consequences for agricultural planning, commodityprices, insurance terms, and energy availability.

Traditionally, the European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts(ECMWF) runs a physical dynamical seasonal forecasting model calledSEASS on supercomputers to forecast the Nino-3.4 index, an index thatdefines El Nino and La Nina events, and is representative of averageequatorial sea surface temperatures (SST) across the tropical PacificOcean between 5N-5S and 120-170W.

According to embodiments of the present invention, the CLIMATEAI systemtrains a NN 500 as shown in FIG. 5A on simulations from AOGCMs andevaluates the NN on observational historical data, to predict surfacetemperatures. More specifically, the CLIMATEAI system trains NN 500 on24-month time series of monthly, preindustrial (piControl) surfacetemperature data from the following AOGCMs, each named after themodeling centers that produced them: CNRM-CM5 (800 years), MPI-ESM-LR(1000 years), NorESM1-M (500 years), HadGEM2-ES (500 years), andGFDL-ESM2G (500 years). The specific version numbers of the simulationdatasets used for training are shown in Table 1. In Table 1, “tos”refers to Sea Surface Temperature, and “tas” refers to Near-Surface AirTemperature.

TABLE 1 List of GCM Simulation Dataset Models Versions i. CNRM-CM5training (~800 years) 20110701, 20121001 ii. MPI-ESM-LR training (1000years) 20120602, 20120625 iii. GISS-E2-H (480 years) 20170202 iv.NorESM1-M (~500 years) 20110901 v. HadGEM2-ES (~500 years) 20110928(tos), 20110524 (tas) vi GFDL-ESM2G (~500 years) 20110928 (tos),20110524 (tas)

In a first set of experiments, near-surface air temperature (tas) isused as forecast model input, to predict the near-surface airtemperature at 3-month lead time (AIR), and skin surface temperature at3-month lead time (SKT), respectively.

Table 2 shows rankings of different GCM datasets and different ensemblesof GCM datasets in predicting AIR and SKT, as measured by Root MeanSquare Error (RMSE) when compared to ground truth Nino-3.4 surfacetemperature targets calculated from the ECMWF ERAS dataset, which is agridded dataset of reanalyzed historical observations. In Table 2,“ii+tr(i)” refers to a data ensemble generated by concatenating modelsii and i, and “i+tr(ii)” refers to a concatenation of the two models ina reverse order. In addition, “[ii+tr(i)]×100” refers to repeating“ii+tr(i)” one hundred times as a data augmentation measure. Using suchan augmented dataset is equivalent to running or training theforecasting model one hundred times on the same ii+tr(i) data ensemble,but each time with different hyperparameters and weight initializationsas derived from the previous run. The forecasting model output at theend of the 100 respective runs may also be viewed collectively andprobabilistically as a conventional ensemble forecasting distribution.

It can be seen from Table 2 that the multi-model ensemble i+tr(ii)provides best training to predicting AIR, while the multi-model ensembleii+tr(i) augmented one hundred times provides the best training topredicting SKT.

TABLE 2 Predictions at 3-months Lead Time Reanalysis ReanalysisReanalysis Reanalysis Train Valid RMSE R2 RMSE R2 Rank Rank Models RMSERMSE (AIR) (AIR) (SKT) (SKT) (AIR) (SKT) i 0.3221611 0.41225 0.636 0.6120.474 0.76  4 3 ii 0.3162278 0.39818 0.553 0.707 0.501 0.731 2 5 iii0.3127905 0.53467 0.825 0.347 0.683 0.501 7 8 iv 0.1945483 0.42032 0.7110.515 0.68  0.506 6 7 v 0.6478366 0.56929 0.828 0.343 0.845 0.237 8 9 vi0.3495294 0.59151 0.64  0.608 0.566 0.658 5 6 ii + tr(i) 0.30270720.37141 0.573 0.685 0.439 0.794 3 2 i + tr(ii) 0.3058446 0.37416 0.5410.72  0.495 0.738 1 4 [ii + tr(i)] × 100 0.422 0.818 1

In a second set of experiments, data ensembles generated from the samesix GCM models i to vi are used in predicting the Nino-3.4 index as thetarget output climate variable, and again with ground truth computedfrom ERAS. SEAS5 data from 1993-2016 are used for validation.

FIG. 13A is a graph 1300 comparing correlation measures of differentforecasting methods in predicting the Nino 3.4 Index at different leadtimes, according to some embodiments of the present invention.Meanwhile, FIG. 13B is a graph 1350 comparing the time series offorecast results by different forecasting methods in predicting the Nino3.4 Index, according to some embodiments of the present invention. TheCLIMATEAI forecast result shown in FIG. 13A and 13B are based on an NNtrained on a data ensemble that interleaves simulation data frommultiple GCMs. It can be seen that neural networks trained on AOGCMsaccording to embodiments of the present invention offer comparableforecasting performance to SEAS5 while consuming only a minisculefraction of the computation power. The CLIMATEAI system that learns fromabundant AOGCM simulations also outperforms NNs trained purely onlimited amount of historical observations.

In a third set of experiments, the CLIMATEAI system may be trainedaccording to embodiments of the present invention to forecast someprimary climate variable such as surface temperature, and an additionalshallow neural network may be connected to the NN output to furtherpredict some secondary climate variables such as wind speed, streamflow,growing degree days (GDD), daily temperature, and the like.

As illustrative examples, FIG. 14 shows a diagram 1400 of a seasonalaverage wind speed prediction for the ASSURA II wind farm in Brazil,according to some embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 15 is anillustrative diagram 1500 showing a United States map of hydroelectricplants run by U.S. Bureau of Reclamations, and seasonal risk predictionsfor the Ames Hydroelectric Plant in Colorado, according to someembodiments of the present invention. Predicted climate risk score,overall water risk and water risk scores are listed. FIG. 16 is anillustrative diagram 1600 showing an analysis of power generation by ahydroelectric plant including seasonal variations in power production,according to some embodiments of the present invention. Totalgenerations and river streamflows are compared in the bottom panel,indicating a high correlation with seasonality in power generation atthis site.

CONCLUSIONS

One of ordinary skill in the art knows that the use cases, structures,schematics, and flow diagrams may be performed in other orders orcombinations, but the inventive concept of the present invention remainswithout departing from the broader scope of the invention. Everyembodiment may be unique, and methods/steps may be either shortened orlengthened, overlapped with the other activities, postponed, delayed,and continued after a time gap, such that every end-user device isaccommodated by the server to practice the methods of the presentinvention.

The present invention may be implemented in hardware and/or in software.Many components of the system, for example, signal processing modules ornetwork interfaces etc., have not been shown, so as not to obscure thepresent invention. However, one of ordinary skill in the art wouldappreciate that the system necessarily includes these components. Acomputing device, as illustrated in FIG. 3, is a hardware that includesat least one processor coupled to a memory. The processor may representone or more processors (e.g., microprocessors), and the memory mayrepresent random access memory (RAM) devices comprising a main storageof the hardware, as well as any supplemental levels of memory, e.g.,cache memories, non-volatile or back-up memories (e.g., programmable orflash memories), read-only memories, etc. In addition, the memory may beconsidered to include memory storage physically located elsewhere in thehardware, e.g., any cache memory in the processor, as well as anystorage capacity used as a virtual memory, e.g., as stored on a massstorage device.

The hardware of a computing device also typically receives a number ofinputs and outputs for communicating information externally. Forinterface with a user, the hardware may include one or more user inputdevices (e.g., a keyboard, a mouse, a scanner, a microphone, a camera,etc.) and a display (e.g., a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) panel). Foradditional storage, the hardware may also include one or more massstorage devices, e.g., a floppy or other removable disk drive, a harddisk drive, a Direct Access Storage Device (DASD), an optical drive(e.g., a Compact Disk (CD) drive, a Digital Versatile Disk (DVD) drive,etc.) and/or a tape drive, among others. Furthermore, the hardware mayinclude an interface to one or more networks (e.g., a local area network(LAN), a wide area network (WAN), a wireless network, and/or theInternet among others) to permit the communication of information withother computers coupled to the networks. It should be appreciated thatthe hardware typically includes suitable analog and/or digitalinterfaces to communicate with each other.

In some embodiments of the present invention, the entire system can beimplemented and offered to the end-users and operators over theInternet, in a so-called cloud implementation. No local installation ofsoftware or hardware would be needed, and the end-users and operatorswould be allowed access to the systems of the present invention directlyover the Internet, using either a web browser or similar software on aclient, which client could be a desktop, laptop, mobile device, and soon. This eliminates any need for custom software installation on theclient side and increases the flexibility of delivery of the service(software-as-a-service), and increases user satisfaction and ease ofuse. Various business models, revenue models, and delivery mechanismsfor the present invention are envisioned, and are all to be consideredwithin the scope of the present invention.

The hardware operates under the control of an operating system, andexecutes various computer software applications, components, programcode, libraries, objects, modules, etc. to perform the methods,processes, and techniques described above.

In general, the method executed to implement the embodiments of theinvention may be implemented as part of an operating system or aspecific application, component, program, object, module, or sequence ofinstructions referred to as “computer program(s)” or “program code(s).”The computer programs typically comprise one or more instructions set atvarious times in various memory and storage devices in a computingdevice or computer, and that, when read and executed by one or moreprocessors in the computer, cause the computer to perform operationsnecessary to execute elements involving the various aspects of theinvention. Moreover, while the invention has been described in thecontext of fully functioning computers and computer systems, thoseskilled in the art will appreciate that the various embodiments of theinvention are capable of being distributed as a program product in avariety of forms, and that the invention applies equally regardless ofthe particular type of machine or computer-readable media used toactually effect the distribution. Examples of computer-readable mediainclude but are not limited to recordable type media such as volatileand non-volatile memory devices, floppy and other removable disks, harddisk drives, optical disks (e.g., Compact Disk Read-Only Memory(CD-ROMS), Digital Versatile Disks, (DVDs), etc.), and digital andanalog communication media.

Although specific embodiments of the disclosure have been described, oneof ordinary skill in the art will recognize that numerous othermodifications and alternative embodiments are within the scope of thedisclosure. For example, any of the functionality and/or processingcapabilities described with respect to a particular device or componentmay be performed by any other device or component. Further, whilevarious illustrative implementations and architectures have beendescribed in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure, one ofordinary skill in the art will appreciate that numerous othermodifications to the illustrative implementations and architecturesdescribed herein are also within the scope of this disclosure.

Blocks of the block diagrams and flow diagrams support combinations ofmeans for performing the specified functions, combinations of elementsor steps for performing the specified functions, and program instructionmeans for performing the specified functions. It will also be understoodthat each block of the block diagrams and flow diagrams, andcombinations of blocks in the block diagrams and flow diagrams, may beimplemented by special-purpose, hardware-based computer systems thatperform the specified functions, elements or steps, or combinations ofspecial-purpose hardware and computer instructions.

A software component may be coded in any of a variety of programminglanguages. An illustrative programming language may be a lower-levelprogramming language such as an assembly language associated with aparticular hardware architecture and/or operating system platform. Asoftware component comprising assembly language instructions may requireconversion into executable machine code by an assembler prior toexecution by the hardware architecture and/or platform.

A software component may be stored as a file or other data storageconstruct. Software components of a similar type or functionally relatedmay be stored together such as, for example, in a particular directory,folder, or library. Software components may be static (for example,pre-established or fixed) or dynamic (for example, created or modifiedat the time of execution).

Software components may invoke or be invoked by other softwarecomponents through any of a wide variety of mechanisms. Invoked orinvoking software components may comprise other custom-developedapplication software, operating system functionality (for example,device drivers, data storage (for example, file management) routines,other common routines and services, etc.), or third-party softwarecomponents (for example, middleware, encryption, or other securitysoftware, database management software, file transfer or other networkcommunication software, mathematical or statistical software, imageprocessing software, and format translation software).

Software components associated with a particular solution or system mayreside and be executed on a single platform or may be distributed acrossmultiple platforms. The multiple platforms may be associated with morethan one hardware vendor, underlying chip technology, or operatingsystem. Furthermore, software components associated with a particularsolution or system may be initially written in one or more programminglanguages but may invoke software components written in anotherprogramming language.

Computer-executable program instructions may be loaded onto aspecial-purpose computer or other particular machine, a processor, orother programmable data processing apparatus to produce a particularmachine, such that execution of the instructions on the computer,processor, or other programmable data processing apparatus causes one ormore functions or operations specified in the flow diagrams to beperformed. These computer program instructions may also be stored in acomputer-readable storage medium (CRSM) that upon execution may direct acomputer or other programmable data processing apparatus to function ina particular manner, such that the instructions stored in thecomputer-readable storage medium produce an article of manufactureincluding instruction means that implement one or more functions oroperations specified in the flow diagrams. The computer programinstructions may also be loaded onto a computer or other programmabledata processing apparatus to cause a series of operational elements orsteps to be performed on the computer or other programmable apparatus toproduce a computer-implemented process.

Although embodiments have been described in language specific tostructural features and/or methodological acts, it is to be understoodthat the disclosure is not necessarily limited to the specific featuresor acts described. Rather, the specific features and acts are disclosedas illustrative forms of implementing the embodiments. Conditionallanguage, such as, among others, “can,” “could,” “might,” or “may,”unless specifically stated otherwise, or otherwise understood within thecontext as used, is generally intended to convey that certainembodiments could include, while other embodiments do not include,certain features, elements, and/or steps. Thus, such conditionallanguage is not generally intended to imply that features, elements,and/or steps are in any way required for one or more embodiments or thatone or more embodiments necessarily include logic for deciding, with orwithout user input or prompting, whether these features, elements,and/or steps are included or are to be performed in any particularembodiment.

Although the present invention has been described with reference tospecific exemplary embodiments, it will be evident that the variousmodification and changes can be made to these embodiments withoutdeparting from the broader scope of the invention. Accordingly, thespecification and drawings are to be regarded in an illustrative senserather than in a restrictive sense. It will also be apparent to theskilled artisan that the embodiments described above are specificexamples of a single broader invention which may have greater scope thanany of the singular descriptions taught. There may be many alterationsmade in the descriptions without departing from the scope of the presentinvention.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for generating a neural network (NN)-based climate forecasting model for a target climate forecast application, comprising: selecting a global climate simulation dataset from a plurality of candidate simulation datasets, wherein each candidate simulation dataset is generated from a global climate simulation model (GCM); training the NN-based climate forecasting model on the selected global climate simulation dataset, wherein the NN-based climate forecasting model comprises a predictive neural network, and wherein each input and corresponding desired output used in the training are elements of the selected global climate simulation dataset; and validating the NN-based climate forecasting model on a set of observational historical climate data.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the predictive neural network is a Convolutional Recurrent Neural Network (CRNN) having at least one Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) layer.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the predictive neural network is a Spherical Convolutional Neural Network (S²-CNN).
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the set of observational historical climate data is a first set, and wherein the selecting of the global climate simulation dataset comprises: validating each of the plurality of candidate simulation datasets, by comparing a sample statistic of at least one climate variable, between simulation data from each candidate simulation dataset and a second set of observational historical climate data, wherein the at least one climate variable is selected based on the target climate forecast application; and computing a forecast skill score for each validated candidate simulation dataset.
 5. The method of claim 1, further comprising: augmenting each candidate simulation dataset using at least one of climatology augmentation, temporal augmentation, and McKinnon augmentation.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein at least one of the global climate simulation models is selected from the group consisting of CNRM-CM5 model, MPI-ESM-LR model, GISS-E2-H model, NorESM1-M model, HadGEM2-ES model, and GFDL-ESM2G model.
 7. The method of claim 1, further comprising: tuning the NN-based climate forecasting model on reanalysis data.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the tuning of the NN-based climate forecasting model comprises: freezing one or more layers of the predictive neural network; and training the NN-based climate forecasting model on the reanalysis data.
 9. The method of claim 1, further comprising: forecasting at least one target climate variable at a target lead time using the NN-based climate forecasting model.
 10. A system for generating a neural network (NN)-based climate forecasting model, comprising: at least one processor; and a non-transitory physical storage medium for storing program code and accessible by the processor, the program code when executed by the processor causes the processor to: select a global climate simulation dataset from a plurality of candidate simulation datasets, wherein each candidate simulation dataset is generated from a global climate simulation model (GCM); train the NN-based climate forecasting model on the selected global climate simulation dataset, wherein the NN-based climate forecasting model comprises a predictive neural network, and wherein each input and corresponding desired output used to train the NN-based climate forecasting model are elements of the selected global climate simulation dataset; and validate the NN-based climate forecasting model using a set of observational historical climate data.
 11. The system of claim 10, wherein the predictive neural network is a Convolutional Recurrent Neural Network (CRNN) having at least one Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) layer.
 12. The system of claim 10, wherein the predictive neural network is a Spherical Convolutional Neural Network (S²-CNN).
 13. The system of claim 10, wherein the set of observational historical climate data is a first set, and wherein the program code to select the global climate simulation dataset, when executed by the processor, causes the processor to: validate each of the plurality of candidate simulation datasets, by comparing a sample statistics of at least one climate variable, between simulation data from each candidate simulation dataset and a second set of observational historical climate data, wherein the at least one climate variable is selected based on the target climate forecast application; and compute a forecast skill score for each validated candidate simulation dataset.
 14. The system of claim 10, wherein the program code, when executed by the processor, further causes the processor to: augment each candidate simulation dataset using at least one of climatology augmentation, temporal augmentation, and McKinnon augmentation.
 15. The system of claim 10, wherein at least one of the global climate simulation models is selected from the group consisting of CNRM-CM5 model, MPI-ESM-LR model, GISS-E2-H model, NorESM1-M model, HadGEM2-ES model, and GFDL-ESM2G model.
 16. The system of claim 10, wherein the program code when executed by the processor further causes the processor to: tune the NN-based climate forecasting model on reanalysis data.
 17. The system of claim 16, wherein the program code to tune the NN-based climate forecasting model, when executed by the processor, causes the processor to: freeze one or more layers of the predictive neural network; and train the NN-based climate forecasting model on the reanalysis data.
 18. The system of claim 10, wherein the program code when executed by the processor further causes the processor to: forecast at least one target climate variable at a target lead time using the NN-based climate forecasting model.
 19. A non-transitory physical storage medium for generating a neural network (NN)-based climate forecasting model, the storage medium comprising program code stored thereon, that when executed by a processor causes the processor to: select a global climate simulation dataset from a plurality of candidate simulation datasets, wherein each candidate simulation dataset is generated from a global climate simulation model (GCM); train the NN-based climate forecasting model on the selected global climate simulation dataset, wherein the NN-based climate forecasting model comprises a predictive neural network, and wherein each input and corresponding desired output used to train the NN-based climate forecasting model are elements of the selected global climate simulation dataset; and validate the NN-based climate forecasting model using a set of observational historical climate data.
 20. The non-transitory physical storage medium of claim 19, wherein the predictive neural network is a Convolutional Recurrent Neural Network (CRNN) having at least one Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) layer. 